Directions
(1-10): Read the following passage carefully and answer the questions given
below it. Certain words have been printed in bold to help you to locate them
while answering some of the questions.
Our
propensity to look out for regularities, and to impose laws upon nature, leads
to the psychological phenomenon of dogmatic thinking or, more generally,
dogmatic behaviour: we expect regularities everywhere and attempt to find them
even where there are none; events which do not yield to these attempts we are
inclined to treat as a kind of ‘background noise’; and we stick to our
expectations even when they are inadequate and we ought to accept defeat. This
dogmatism is to some extent necessary. It is demanded by a situation which can
only be dealt with by forcing our conjectures
upon the world. Moreover, this dogmatism allows us to approach a good theory in
stages, by way of approximations: if we accept defeat too easily, we may
prevent ourselves from finding that we were very nearly right.
It is clear
that this dogmatic attitude, which makes us stick to our first impressions, is
indicative of a strong belief; while a critical attitude, which is ready to
modify its tenets, which admits doubt and demands tests, is indicative of a
weaker belief. Now according to Hume’s theory, and to the popular theory, the
strength of a belief should be a product of repetition; thus it should always
grow with experience, and always be greater in less primitive persons. But dogmatic thinking, an uncontrolled wish to
impose regularities, a manifest
pleasure in rites and in repetition as such, is characteristic of primitives
and children; and increasing experience and maturity sometimes create an
attitude of caution and criticism rather than of dogmatism. My logical
criticism of Hume’s psychological theory, and the considerations connected with
it, may seem a little removed from the field of the philosophy of science. But
the distinction between dogmatic and critical thinking, or the dogmatic and the
critical attitude, brings us right back to our central problem.
For the dogmatic attitude is clearly related
to the tendency to verify our laws and schemata by seeking to apply them and to
confirm them, even to the point of neglecting refutations, whereas the critical
attitude is one of readiness to change them — to test them; to refute them; to
falsify them, if possible. This suggests that we may identify the critical
attitude with the scientific attitude, and the dogmatic attitude with the one
which we have described as pseudo-scientific. It further suggests that
genetically speaking the pseudo-scientific attitude is more primitive than, and
prior to, the scientific attitude: that it is a pre-scientific attitude. And
this primitivity also has its logical aspect. For the critical attitude is not
so much opposed to the dogmatic attitude as super-imposed upon it: criticism
must be directed against existing and influential beliefs in need of critical
revision — in other words, dogmatic
beliefs. A critical attitude needs for its raw material, as it were, theories
or beliefs which are held more or less dogmatically.
Thus,
science must begin with myths, and with the criticism of myths; neither with
the collection of observations, nor with the invention of experiments, but with
the critical discussion of myths, and of magical techniques and practices. The
scientific tradition is distinguished from the pre-scientific tradition in
having two layers. Like the latter, it passes on its theories; but it also
passes on a critical attitude towards them. The theories are passed on, not as
dogmas, but rather with the challenge to discuss them and improve upon them.
The critical attitude, the tradition of free discussion of theories with the
aim of discovering their weak spots so that they may be improved upon, is the
attitude of reasonableness, of rationality.
From the point of view here developed, all laws, all theories, remain
essentially tentative, or conjectural, or hypothetical, even when we feel
unable to doubt them any longer. Before a theory has been refuted we can never
know in what way it may have to be modified.
Q1. In the
context of science, according to the passage, the interaction of dogmatic beliefs
and critical attitude can be best described as:
(a) A duel
between two warriors in which one has to die.
(b) The
effect of a chisel on a marble stone while making a sculpture.
(c) The
feedshare (natural gas) in fertilizer industry being transformed into
fertilizers.
(d) A
predator killing its prey.
(e) The
effect of fertilizers on a sapling.
Q2.
According to the passage, the role of a dogmatic attitude or dogmatic behaviour
in the development of science is
(a) Critical
and important, as, without it, initial hypotheses or conjectures can never be
made.
(b)
Positive, as conjectures arising out of our dogmatic attitude become science.
(c)
Negative, as it leads to pseudo-science.
(d) Neutral,
as the development of science is essentially because of our critical attitude.
(e) Inferior
to critical attitude, as a critical attitude leads to the attitude of
reasonableness and
rationality.
Q3. Dogmatic
behaviour, in this passage, has been associated with primitives and children.
Which of the following best describes the reason why the author compares
primitives with children?
(a)
Primitives are people who are not educated, and hence can be compared with
children, who have not yet been through school.
(b)
Primitives are people who, though not modern, are as innocent as children.
(c)
Primitives are people without a critical attitude, just as children are.
(d)
Primitives are people in the early stages of human evolution; similarly,
children are in the early stages of their lives.
(e)
Primitives are people who are not civilized enough, just as children are not.
Q4. Which of
the following statements best supports the argument in the passage that a
critical attitude leads to a weaker belief than a dogmatic attitude does?
(a) A critical
attitude implies endless questioning, and, therefore, it cannot lead to strong
beliefs.
(b) A
critical attitude, by definition, is centred on an analysis of anomalies and
“noise”.
(c) A
critical attitude leads to questioning everything, and in the process generates
“noise” without any conviction.
(d) A
critical attitude is antithetical to conviction, which is required for strong
beliefs.
(e) A
critical attitude leads to questioning and to tentative hypotheses.
Q5.
According to the passage, which of the following statements best describes the
difference between science and pseudo-science?
(a)
Scientific theories or hypotheses are tentatively true whereas pseudo-sciences
are always true.
(b)
Scientific laws and theories are permanent and immutable whereas
pseudo-sciences are contingent on the prevalent mode of thinking in a society.
(c) Science
always allows the possibility of rejecting a theory or hypothesis, whereas
pseudo-sciences seek to validate their ideas or theories.
(d) Science
focuses on anomalies and exceptions so that fundamental truths can be
uncovered, whereas pseudo-sciences focus mainly on general truths.
(e) Science
progresses by collection of observations or by experimentation, whereas
pseudo-sciences do not worry about observations and experiments.
Directions (6-10):
Choose the word/group of words which is MOST SIMILAR in meaning to the
word/ group of words printed in bold as used in the passage.
Q6. PRIMITIVE
(a)
Rudimentary
(b)Obsolete
(c) Naive
(d)
Sophisticated
(e) Archaic
Q7. DOGMATIC
(a) Tentative
(b) Imperative
(c) Liberal
(d) Indulgent
(e) Forbearing
Q8. CONJECTURES
(a) Surmise
(b) Certitude
(c) Conviction
(d) Gospel
(e) Verity
Directions (9-10):
Choose the word/group of words which is MOST OPPOSITE in meaning to the
word/ group of words printed in bold as used in the passage.
Q9. MANIFEST
(a) Palpable
(b) Distinct
(c) Obscure
(d) Lucid
(e) Conspicuous
Q10. RATIONALITY
(a) Fallacious
(b) Shrewd
(c) Astute
(d) Perspicacious
(e) Cogent
Direction (11-15): Which of the
phrases (a), (b), (c) and (d) given should replace the phrase given in bold in
the following sentences to make the sentence grammatically meaningful and
correct. If the sentence is correct as it is and no correction is
required, mark (e) as the answer.
Q11. In
guest rooms, the central portion is generally reserved for
sofa set.
(a) generally is
reserved
(b) is reserved
generally
(c) was generally
reserved
(d) are generally
reserved
(e) No correction
required
Q12. The
impact of the composite bow on warfare was equal to the crossbow
of medieval times.
(a) was equal to of the
(b) is equal to the
(c) is equal to that
(d) was equal to that
of the
(e) No correction
required
Q13. Culture,
climate and geography plays an important part in the formation
of any proverb
(a) plays an important
role
(b) plays a important
part
(c) play an important
role
(d) plays important
part
(e) No correction
required
Q14. This
book will be of particular interested to those fascinated by
the recent philosophy
(a) of particularly
interested
(b) of particular
interest
(c) of interested in
particular
(d) particularly of
interested
(e) No correction
required
Q15. These
days developed countries have started looking down for
underdeveloped countries as it is advantageous for both the parties.
(a) looking after
(b) looking down upon
(c) to look down at
(d) looking for at
(e) No correction
required
SOLUTIONS
S1. Ans. (b)
Sol. According to the passage, “A critical attitude
needs for its raw material, as it were, theories or beliefs which are held more
or less dogmatically”. Therefore, our critical attitude is the tool by
which we shape our dogmatic beliefs. Thus, the relationship of dogmatic beliefs
and critical attitude is equivalent to that of a chisel and that of a marble
stone.
S2. Ans. (a)
Sol. Option (c), (d) and (e) are ruled out because they
are not supported by the passage. (negative, neutral, inferior) – Option (a)
and (b) are close but (c) is better because the question is about the role of
dogmatic behaviour with respect to the development of science. In the third
paragraph, 8th line, it is mentioned that dogmatic attitude is pseudo/pre-scientific
attitude. Science needs dogmatic beliefs for their critical revision. Beginning
of fourth paragraph states that science begins with myths and criticism of
myths. Thus, dogmatic behavior is required to develop science because the
former serves as the base on which science is made.
S3. Ans. (d)
Sol. Refer to the last sentence of the second paragraph.
It is clear from the context (especially from the words – ‘experience’,
‘maturity’) that time has a direct effect on the evolution of thinking. Option
(d) is the only option which takes into account the element of time (the word-
‘stages’).
S4. Ans. (e)
Sol. Option (e) is correct because this statement
suggests that critical attitude is a process of questioning which leads to
tentative hypothesis. A critical attitude by itself is not opposed to
conviction, but it tries to modify the conviction according to reason.
S5. Ans. (c)
Sol. Refer to the third last paragraph of the passage;
dogmatic attitude is pseudo-scientific because its aim is only to verify its
laws and schemata even if it has to neglect the refutations. Whereas critical
attitude is flexible enough to change, refute or falsify and therefore has a
questioning attitude.
S6. Ans. (a)
Sol. Primitive
means very basic or unsophisticated in terms of comfort, convenience, or
efficiency hence rudimentary is the word most similar in meaning.
S7. Ans. (b)
Sol. Dogmatic means inclined to lay down
principles as undeniably true imperative is the word most similar in meaning.
S8. Ans. (a)
Sol. Conjecture means an opinion or conclusion
formed on the basis of incomplete information hence surmise is the word
most
S9. Ans. (c)
Sol. Manifest means clear or obvious to the eye or mind
hence obscure is the word most opposite in meaning.
S10. Ans. (a)
Sol. Rationality means based on or in
accordance with reason or logic.
S11.
Ans. (e)
S12.
Ans. (d)
S13.
Ans. (c)
S14.
Ans. (b)
S15.
Ans. (a)
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